Using Pull-Up and Pull-Down Resistors
An embedded microcontroller utilizes input/output (IO) signals to
communicate with the outside world. The simplest form of IO is
commonly referred to as general-purpose input/output (GPIO) where
the GPIO voltage level can be high, low, or high-impedance. Pulling
resistors are used to ensure GPIO is always in a valid state.
GPIO Input States on an Embedded Microcontroller
GPIO on a microcontroller is usually configured as either input or output. As an input, the pin can take one of three states: low, high, and floating (also called high-impedance or tri-stated). When an input is driven above the input high threshold, it is high (or logic one). When driven below the input low threshold, the input is low (or logic zero). When in a high-impedance state, the input level is not reliably high or low. To ensure an input value is always in a known state, a pull-up or pull-down resistor is used. A pull-up resistor pulls the signal to a high state unless it is driven low while a pull-down resistor puts the signal in a low state unless driven high.
Pull-up or Pull-down
The figure above illustrates a typical pull-up resistor application. The resistor is connected between the power supply and a GPIO pin. A switch is then connected between the GPIO pin and ground. When the switch is open, there is (practically) zero current that flows from VCC through the resistor and into the GPIO pin. The voltage at the GPIO pin is given by the following equation derived from Ohm’s law:
\[ V_{GPIO} = V_{CC} - I_{R1} \cdot R_1 \]Since there is no current through the resistor \( I_{R1} = 0 \), there is no voltage drop across R1 making the voltage at the GPIO input equal to VCC which causes the input to read “high”. When the switch is closed, the GPIO pin is connected directly to ground driving it “low”. As a side effect of closing the switch, current flows through the resistor according to the following equation (also from Ohm’s law):
\[ I_{PULLUP} = \frac{ V_{CC}}{ R_{PULLUP} } \]In some systems, \( I_{PULLUP} \) is a significant amount of current through the pull-up (or pull-down) resistor. Increasing the value of the resistor can reduce this current while simultaneously causing the pull-up or pull-down to be “weaker”.
Weak or Strong Pull-up/Pull-down Resistor
A weak pull-up/pull-down resistor typically has a value of tens or hundreds of kilo-ohms. Strong pulling resistors have values of a few kilo-ohms and can override weak pulling resistors if both are used on the same microcontroller GPIO pin. The circuit below shows a GPIO pin with a weak internal pull-up resistor–most modern microcontroller designs have built-in pull-up and/or pull-down resistors on each GPIO pin–and a strong external pull-down resistor.
For the strong pull-down resistor to work properly, it must be correctly sized. During normal operation, the voltage at the GPIO pin must be below the input low voltage \( V_{IL} \) as specified in the electrical characteristics section of the device’s datasheet. The voltage at the GPIO pin is calculated using a voltage divider:
\[ V_{GPIO} = \frac{ V_{CC} \cdot R_1}{ R_1 + R_2 } \]The value of the strong pull-down must be low enough to make \( V_{GPIO} \lt V_{IL} \). This ensures the voltage at the microcontroller GPIO pin is low (logic zero) when the switch is open. When the switch is closed, the signal is driven high–not because of the internal pull-up resistor but because it is directly connected to VCC.
Conclusion
Pull-up/pull-down resistors are a great way to prevent microcontroller GPIO inputs from assuming undefined values in embedded designs; however, they must be correctly sized (either weak or strong) based on power consumption requirements as well as existing circuitry (such as internal pull-up/pull-down resistors) to ensure proper circuit operation.